blair witch project an analytical essay essays

blair witch project an analytical essay essays The Blair Witch Project is a mock documentary on three film students: Heather, Mike and Shaun, who go out and shoot their own documentary on the Blair Witch. This Blair Witch apparently haunts a forest in Burkittsville Maryland and these students are going to find out firsthand if this rumor is true. Unfortunately this rumor turns out to be fact and all three characters are eventually hunted and killed by the Blair witch. The scene which I have chosen to analyze is a short ten second scene near the very end of the movie. In this scene we see a close up of Mike, from a diagonal angle. Mike is rocking back and forth and then yawns. This scene is key point were the viewer realizes that there is no hope for MIke and Heather. The woods are just too vast for these inexperienced students. In this scene, Mike is wearing his backpack that is bigger than him indicating the the burden he has to carry. Besides the burden it can also represent all the pressure he is under at this particular point. The backpack, being larger than he is can be a metaphor for how small and insignificant he is in comparison to the colossal trees around him. The fact that the straps are so big and that they wrap around Mike can show how he is completely engulfed by this pressure, just like he is surrounded by the trees. The backpack and trees completely overpower Mike, causing him to feel helpless and miniscule, like a child. The second image chosen is Mike rocking back and forth, followed by the yawn. In most scenarios children rock themselves when they are nervous. This clearly hints that Mike, an average sound technician is no longer himself but rather someone else who is overtaken by the immensity of the forest. The yawn gives Mike the innocent look tha ...

Your LinkedIn Profile 10 Most Common Errors and Omissions

Your LinkedIn Profile 10 Most Common Errors and Omissions Your professional image is largely determined by whats on your LinkedIn profile. Dont think for a minute that any and I mean any employer who considers hiring you wont Google you and vet your LinkedIn profile. What would you like them to find there? I recently offered to review 20 peoples LinkedIn profiles for free, and I got an overwhelming response to my offer. What I learned through the process of conducting these reviews rather astounded me. Heres what potential employers and clients will see in most profiles: 1. Spelling, grammar and punctuation errors in the main profile. Dont let this happen. Find a good editor to review your profile! 2. Recommendations containing spelling, grammar and punctuation errors. Have someone check these and if there are errors, ask your recommender to replace the recommendation. Most people are very cooperative Ive made these requests myself! 3. No picture, a blurry picture, a picture with 2 people in it, or a picture with a busy background. I understand some people have privacy considerations that raise concerns about posting a picture on LinkedIn. If you do choose to post a photo, however, make it a head shot with a plain, light background. Were shooting for the professional look here! 4. Websites like My Company and My graduate school. These titles dont provide much information. Thankfully, its easy to personalize your URLs just choose Other and write in your specific website description. 5. Public profile URLs with lots of numbers, letters and slashes at the end. You can customize your URL to end with your name. Is that name taken? Try last name followed by first name, or use an initial or two, or insert dashes you can figure this one out. (Read more about this in my post Should I Include My LinkedIn Profile URL on My Resume?) Heres what potential employers and clients will NOT see in many cases: 1. Consistency. From one job description to the next, there are often discrepancies in format and structure. Consistency is extremely important in any resume-like document! If you have a heading that says Major Accomplishments, use it in all positions where you had major accomplishments. If you are writing in the third person, write everything in the third person. If you use periods at the end of your bullets, do it everywhere. Capisce? 2. Recommendations. If you own a business or are looking for work, it is especially important to use this opportunity to have people sell you! 3. Descriptions of your job duties and accomplishments why would you leave these out? Its okay on your 10th job in the list to leave out the bullets, but make sure you provide a description of what you did at your jobs. Start your phrases with verbs (past tense verbs for past positions, present tense verbs for present positions). Let us know not just what you did but what you accomplished. The more concrete and quantifiable the better. You can also attach a resume for this purpose if you download the application Box.net. 4. School activities and sometimes degrees. If you got a degree or participated in activities while in school, list them! 5. Applications. I recommend checking out the partner applications available through LinkedIn. You can attach documents, recommend books, and do many other things with these useful tools. Find out whats available and use it! If you avoid these errors and omissions in your LinkedIn profile, you will stand out in a positive way to the people reading it. Why would you take a chance by doing anything else? Are you getting the results that you want from your LinkedIn profile? If not, this book is for you. In my do-it-yourself Kindle book, How to Write a KILLER LinkedIn Profile And 18 Mistakes to Avoid! I provide you with 18 detailed strategies and writing tips that other â€Å"LinkedIn experts† don’t cover. First I tell you how to get found on LinkedIn, and then I tell you how to keep people reading. Click here for more info and to order. Category:Archived ArticlesBy Brenda BernsteinMay 22, 2009 2 Comments Irene Castillo says: May 25, 2009 at 5:14 am I am interested. How would I pay the $25? Thank you. Log in to Reply admin says: May 29, 2009 at 4:12 pm Here is the link to the profile review offer on my website: LinkedIn Profile Review Click ?add to cart? and you will be brought to a PayPal window where you can purchase the profile review. If you would prefer, we can send a PayPal request by email, or an invoice for payment by check. What you get in a LinkedIn Profile Review by The Essay Expert: ? Overview of your presentation, including strengths and weaknesses ? Detailed commentary on every section of your profile ? Substantive and technical suggestions for improvement Thank you for working with The Essay Expert. Log in to Reply

Community Learning Disability Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Community Learning Disability Nursing - Essay Example This discussion highlights that aside from the physical and psychological punches are the psychosocial dilemmas of inequality in access not only to health care services but also in other resources. It then stipulates that learning disability nurses work to dismantle this barrier for the persons with learning disability to pass through to take up a gratifying life.This paper declares that  community nurses provide support on issues regarding their physical care needs, aging, and sexuality. Particularly the main responsibility of community learning disability nurse involves consultancy, assessment, treatment, training, care planning, health promotion, and promoting access to services. In addition to direct clinical and therapeutic role, nurses are involved with activities in delivering healthcare such as health promotion, health facilitation, teaching, and service development. It involves formulation and implementation of a written care plan, utilizing a structured approach with cont inuous evaluation and re-examination taking into consideration the collaboration with the family members and health team and the concept of person-centered planning.  As with any nursing health care delivery, utilization of a care plan is indispensable. Comprehensive assessment must be done in order to identify specific problems and sub-problems occurring which may not be ready recognized by the person with learning disability.... In addition Hall (2004) estimated it to be 25–30 per 1000 with mild and 3–4 per 1000 with severe learning disability in the UK. This number, though not alarming as it seem, deemed the necessity of learning disability nursing’s genesis in the clinical place and community. Gates and Barr (2009) provided a clear definition of learning disability nursing as they stated: â€Å"Learning disability nursing is a person-centered profession with the primary aim of supporting the well being and social inclusion of people with learning disabilities through improving or maintaining physical and mental health.† They comprehensively delineated the purpose of this profession to include the assessment of the health care needs of this population in order to aid them on their optimum level of independence. This task is achieved by the nurse by enhancing skills and competence required to meet the evolving needs of these people from birth to death and through collaboration wit h other agencies and associates. This branch of nursing does not focus only on clinical manifestations of physical health nor specific on mental health, but rather encompass the total well-being of a person in all aspects – physical, psychological, social, spiritual, and emotional (Gates and Barr 2009). Department of Health (2007) in UK reported that the incidence of wide range physical and mental health conditions among people with learning disabilities ceaselessly escalated. These are true to those in the population requiring special attention from biomedicine. Aside from the physical and psychological punches are the psychosocial dilemmas of inequality in access not

Strategic Plan and SWOT Analysis of Techno Group of Companies Research Paper - 1

Strategic Plan and SWOT Analysis of Techno Group of Companies - Research Paper Example The researcher states that the Techno Group of Companies focus on delivering the best quality along with ensuring that the health and safety precautions are well taken care of in the work environment. The main purpose of the company is to ensure that the company develops into a company that has a strong name in the growing market of construction. Also, the company ensures that work and projects that they deal with are completed keeping their core values of integrity along with client focus, teamwork and accelerated growth in mind. This has previously kept the previous customers satisfied and been the sole reason why they have been doing business with the company since then. The purpose of the Techno Group of Companies revolves around establishing the name of the company into the society. The entrepreneurs with projects that associate to development in of the infrastructure of the community is the primary goals along with constructing the buildings that are a part of this infrastructu re development. These functions revolve around the training of individuals who would serve the company as project managers, construction managers, design engineers and project architects which would be trained in a unique fashion and give the company the competitive advantage of the competition in these fields. The Techno Group of Companies also tries to focus on creating a name in other fields of work that would involve larger projects which can reach the scales of developing major dams and entirely new cities. This ultimate goal leads down to increasing the market share and keeping the name of the company on the recommended list of countries where they have current projects already running. The company is already very proud of the fact that they are a front line company to complete some major prestigious projects in various countries.

Positive Consequences Essay Example for Free

Positive Consequences Essay Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging other cultures in the context of one’s own culture. By using the standards of a certain culture to assess other cultures, ethnocentric people often make hasty and offensive generalizations about people whose cultural backgrounds differ from theirs. Racial stereotypes and the usage of scapegoats are two negative effects of ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism A common mistake that occurs in the study of other cultures is the tendency to critically judge the culture being studied using the standards of one’s own culture. In doing so, the researcher imposes the assumptions and perspectives of his or her own culture on everything that he or she encounters about the culture that he or she is studying. The researcher eventually starts to dismiss facts that may appear different or strange to him or her as â€Å"bad,† â€Å"dumb,† â€Å"pagan,† â€Å"primitive,† etc. The end result is that the researcher unknowingly practices ethnocentrism (NCSU-CHASS, n. d. ). â€Å"Us† against â€Å"Them† Merriam-Webster Online (2008) defined ethnocentrism as a â€Å"(belief that is) characterized or based on the attitude that one’s own group is superior† (Merriam-Webster Online, 2008). Ethnocentrism occurs when people make generalizations about other cultures and customs that are based on their own cultural norms. More often than not, ethnocentric individuals unconsciously use their own culture as a universal yardstick that can accurately judge cultures that are different from theirs. As a result, they come up with erroneous, hurtful and disrespectful assumptions about other people (Culbertson, 2008). Positive Consequences Ethnocentrism satisfies the human psyche’s need for identity and belonging. By claiming that his or her culture is â€Å"superior† over other cultures, a person gains a sense of importance over other people. Ethnocentrism also fosters intarethnic loyalty, which, in turn, leads to the survival of a society. In her article Ethnocentrism and Xenophobia: A Cross-Cultural Study (2001), Elizabeth Cashdan argued that being social animals, humans do not have the capacity to survive on their own. They had to form groups or communities wherein members shared the complex responsibilities needed for survival (Cashdan, 2001). But they also have to compete with other groups or communities, especially for resources. In order to win the competition, a community’s sense of identity must be strong enough to motivate its members to abandon personal interests and work together towards the society’s advancement. As a result, the community survives and even improves (Cashdan, 2001). Negative Consequences Ethnocentrism is the root cause of various misconceptions about people of certain cultures. Ethnocentric individuals often create racist stereotypes about them simply because they regard them as â€Å"inferior† or â€Å"uncivilized. † Below are some examples of racist stereotypes: The Mammy. The mammy is the oldest and the most popular racial stereotype regarding African-American women. She is portrayed as dark-skinned, middle aged, overweight, very religious cheerful and extremely loyal and faithful to the white family she was working for. There is no historical evidence that supports the existence of actual mammies. Further research revealed that this stereotype was created to justify the institution of slavery – the mammy was proof that black women were happy and contented as slaves. In addition, her desexualized nature was intended to conceal sexual relations between white men and black female slaves in pre-Civil War America (Pilgrim, 2000). The Tom. The Tom is the male counterpart of the mammy. He is frequently presented as a hardworking, smiling and dependable black server, usually working as a fieldworker, cook, butler, porter or waiter. Just like the mammy, the Tom’s life revolves around his white masters and their families. Furthermore, the Tom is another racial stereotype that was intended to debunk arguments about the evils of slavery. Nowadays, â€Å"Uncle Tom† has evolved into an expression that is used to criticize a black person who is unreasonably subservient to white people. Lotus Blossom. The Lotus Blossom is one of the most well-known stereotypes attached to Asian women. The term â€Å"Lotus Blossom† refers to a prudish, quiet and submissive Asian woman. But Hollywood took this stereotype to a higher level by featuring Asian women who are prudish, quiet and submissive, but at the same time, eager to please white men. Consequently, movies such as â€Å"Street Fighter† and â€Å"The Joy Luck Club† often pair white actors with Asian actresses (Dugong, n. d. ). Dragon Lady. Akin to the Lotus Blossom, the Dragon Lady is also physically stunning. However, the latter uses her sexuality to get what she wants. Aside from having the ability to seduce men, the Dragon Lady also has superior physical strength and martial arts skills. It is believed that she â€Å"has the power to hypnotize her male rivals, gain trust by seducing them, and when they least expect it, she rids of them through sabotage or backstabbing† (Dugong, n. d. ). As a result, this stereotype projected the misconception that Asian women are avaricious and not trustworthy (Dugong, n. d. ). Scapegoats The usage of scapegoats is another detrimental effect of ethnocentrism. Some people and or organizations unjustly blame other people or groups for the occurrence of certain problems. The targets, in turn, receive rejection and even outright persecution from parties that the perpetrators have managed to influence. The Holocaust is a classic example of using other people as scapegoats. Adolf Hitler got himself into power by constantly blaming the Jews for Germany’s economic, political and social instability after World War I. Conclusion There is a saying that prejudice is the idle man’s substitute for thinking. This byword is very much applicable in ethnocentrism. Instead of taking the time to really know other cultures, some people would rather judge them negatively simply because they are different from their culture. True, attacking other cultures unfairly may be cathartic. But doing so also exposes ethnocentric individuals as insecure people who put other people down to make themselves look and feel good.

MusiciansFriend.Com Essay -- Business and Management Studies:

MusiciansFriend.Com Mission Statement The mission statement for Musician’s Friend has always been "The Best for Less Shipped to Your Door." This is still their company slogan but their mission includes a lot of customer service emphasis as well. The company believes that the key to their success started with their mission statement, commitment to customers, dedicated employees that share the vision, forming partnerships and the growth of the business. Overview Musician’s Friend is an authorized dealer of thousands of products from more than 900 different manufacturers such as Fender, Gibson, Roland, and Pearl. They are the industry leader in musical equipment, information and customer service. They are open twenty-four (24) hours per day, seven (7) days per week, and have been providing the best products for less money to millions of musicians for more than 20 years. Musician's Friend offers over 36,000 products in its mail order catalogs and on its website. Some of the products include guitars, basses, keyboards, percussion, and amps, as well as recording, mixing, lighting, and Disc Jockey equipment. Hundreds of new products add to the company’s monthly supply chain as the company continues to expand its range of product inventory. In addition to their expansive inventory supply, Musician's Friend offers a money-back satisfaction and a price guaranty on every purchase. Musician’s Friend prides itself on having a top-notch staff of customer service people who are not only knowledgeable, but they also live and breathe the products in which they sell. History Musician’s Friend started out as a mail order catalog company in 1983 by Robert and Deanna Eastman, mostly carrying reusable items such as guitar strings, guitar picks, polish and polish cloths among other things. In addition, the catalog advertised some basic accessories like instrument tuners, string winders, guitar stands, music sheet stands and tuning forks. The catalog company started in the Eastman’s home in southern California with a couple of desks in their living room for the call center and order entry, which they later moved to their garage and converted it into mini warehouse of products. The company began expanding both in size and with more products and eventually relocated their business to a dairy barn in southern Oregon. The company ke... ... The Musician’s Friend is a very good example of a small business developing into a successful company that now includes large business partners. From the garage of their home, the Eastman’s were able to build their business by combining their business models, applications and services on the Internet. Thus, creating a good business model for electronic business solutions that other businesses can follow. They also became successful by utilizing their management resources such as supply chain management and customer relationship management. Musician’s Friend took their business concepts, applied it to technology and e-business and gained a rapid change, diversity and a solid foundation of managers and employees. Works Cited Cavanaugh, William. â€Å"New Definition of Diversity.† Executive Excellence, Jan 2001, Vol. 18 Issue 1, p5, 1p. Master FILE Premier on-line. EBSCO Publishing. 02/19/02 Myron, David. â€Å"Workforce Optimization.† Destination CRM, July 2002 Negri, Richard A. â€Å"Companies Link Diversity to Business Strategies.† Sept. 1999 Rabiee, Hamid, Dr. â€Å"AICTC E-Business.† July 2001. Salter, Trent. â€Å"Robert Eastman.† Musician’s Hotline. Jan./Feb. 2002.

Good and Bad Dams

Latin America and Caribbean Region Sustainable Development Working Paper 16 Good Dams and Bad Dams: Environmental Criteria for Site Selection of Hydroelectric Projects November 2003 George Ledec Juan David Quintero The World Bank Latin America and Caribbean Region Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Department (LCSES) Latin America and the Caribbean Region Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 16 Good Dams and Bad Dams: Environmental Criteria for Site Selection of Hydroelectric Projects November 2003George Ledec Juan David Quintero The World Bank Latin America and the Caribbean Region Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Sector Management Unit George Ledec has worked with the World Bank since 1982, and is presently Lead Ecologist for the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Unit (LCSES) of the World Bank’s Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office. He specializes in the environmental assessment of development projects, wit h particular focus on biodiversity and related conservation oncerns. He has worked extensively with the environmental aspects of dams, roads, oil and gas, forest management, and protected areas, and is one of the main authors of the World Bank’s Natural Habitats Policy. Dr. Ledec earned a Ph. D. in Wildland Resource Science from the University of California-Berkeley, a Masters in Public Affairs from Princeton University, and a Bachelors in Biology and Environmental Studies from Dartmouth College.Juan David Quintero joined the World Bank in 1993 and is presently Lead Environmental Specialist for LCSES and Coordinator of the Bank’s Latin America and Caribbean Quality Assurance Team, which monitors compliance with environmental and social safeguard policies. He specializes in environmental assessment of infrastructure projects, mainly roads, hydropower, oil and gas, urban transport, and water supply and sanitation. He has received the Regional Award from the International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) for promoting improvements in environmental impact assessments throughout Latin America.He is a civil engineer with postgraduate degrees in Environmental and Sanitary Engineering. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions in this document are those of the authors, and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, its affiliated organizations, members of its Board of Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. This working paper series is produced by the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Sector Management Unit of the Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office. Additional copies may be obtained from the authors or from LCSES Program Assistant Peter Brandriss ([email  protected] rg, or tel. 1-202-473-9379). Cover photos (clockwise from upper left): Loksop Dam, South Africa Guavio Dam, Colombia Yacyreta Dam, Argentina/Paraguay All photos by George Ledec ii Contents Acknowledgments †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. iv Foreword †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. v Executive Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ii Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1 Adverse Environmental Impacts of Hydropower Development †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3 Key Indicators of Likely Environmental Impacts †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9 Overview of Environmentally Good and Bad Hydroelectric Dam Sites †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 13 Conclusions †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 17 Tables 1. Hydroelectric Projects: Adverse Impacts and Mitigation Options 4 2. Land Area Flooded and People Displaced in Large Hydropower Projects iii 12 Acknowledgments Doug Mason (consultant) compiled data on more than twenty completed Latin American hydroelectric projects; this information was very useful in our analysis of environmental and social impacts, mitigation measures, and site selection criteria.Several current and former World Bank Group staff members provided useful comments and much encouragement, including Alessandro Palmieri, John Briscoe, Teresa Serra, Tony Whitten, Robert Goodland, Tor Ziegler, Warren Van Wicklin, William Partridge, Maria Clara Mejia, Kristine Ivarsdotter, Mateen Thobani, Salman Salman, and A. J. Glauber. This paper also reflects the helpful comments provided by Dominique Egre and Gaitan Guertin (Hydro-Quebec), Jose Goldemberg (World Commission on Dams), and Paul Dulin. Peter Brandriss helped edit and prepare the report for publication. iv ForewordFew types of development projects arouse as much controversy as hydroelectric dams. Their often serious environmental damage has been amply documented within the past decade. Nonetheless, many countries, in Latin America and worldwide, rely upon hydroelectric dams for a major portion of their electric power. Electricity remains a key ingredient for improving the lives of poor people almost everywhere. In developing countries, rapid urbanization and continued population growth will ensure increased demand for electric power for decades to come, even with the most successful of demand management and en ergy efficiency measures.Energy planners in many developing countries are thus likely to continue seeing hydroelectric dams as a promising source of renewable electric power. This report provides important advice for substantially reducing the environmental damage from future hydroelectric dams (whether or not they receive World Bank Group financing) through good project site selection. Although the report’s conclusions are drawn primarily from a review of Latin American dams, its innovative methodology for dam site selection–based on robust environmental and social criteria and straightforward, quantitative indicators–should prove useful worldwide.The report also helpfully summarizes the environmental mitigation options for the improved operation of existing hydroelectric dams. As such, this report should be of considerable interest to people interested in hydroelectric dams, whether at the World Bank, other multilateral and bilateral development institutions, government agencies, private energy companies, consulting firms, environmental and other NGOs, and academia. This report is part of the LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper Series published by the Latin America and the Caribbean Region’s Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Sector Management Unit (LCSES).This series seeks to disseminate the results of our analytical and operational work, present preliminary findings, and describe â€Å"best practices† with respect to major sustainable development issues facing the region. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in these papers are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank, members of its Board of Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. John Redwood Director Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Latin America and Caribbean Region The World Bank v Executive SummaryLarge dams vary considerably in their adverse environment al and related social impacts. From an environmental standpoint, there are relatively good dams and bad dams. While some large dams are relatively benign, others have caused major environmental damage. The severity of environmental impacts from a hydroelectric project is largely determined by the dam site. While dams at good sites can be very defensible from an environmental standpoint, those proposed at bad sites will inherently be highly problematic, even if all feasible mitigation measures are properly implemented.This paper provides a simple, yet robust, methodology for comparing proposed hydroelectric project sites in terms of their expected negative environmental impacts, and relating these to power generation benefits. The paper also summarizes the environmental mitigation options for large dams. If properly implemented, these mitigation measures can effectively prevent, minimize, or compensate for many (though not all) of a hydroelectric project’s negative impacts.Non etheless, the most effective environmental mitigation measure is good site selection, to ensure that the proposed dam will cause relatively little damage in the first place. The paper presents quantitative indicators (using data that are relatively easy to obtain) for rating and ranking proposed new hydroelectric projects in terms of their likely adverse environmental impacts. Projects with a small reservoir surface area (relative to power generation) tend to be most desirable from both an environmental and social standpoint, in part because they minimize natural habitat losses as well as resettlement needs.In general, the most environmentally benign hydroelectric dam sites are on upper tributaries, while the most problematic ones are on the large main stems of rivers. Power expansion planning should ensure that environmental criteria, of the type outlined in this paper, are given appropriate weight in hydroelectric project site selection. Many of the more problematic dam sites are best left undeveloped, because the environmental or related social impacts are likely to be unacceptably high. In those cases, other power generation technologies are likely to be more environmentally desirable.Conversely, hydroelectric dams at good sites (with relatively low adverse impacts) and with effective implementation of proper mitigation measures are likely to be more attractive from an environmental standpoint than the most likely power generation alternatives. vii Introduction 1. Large hydroelectric dams are among the most controversial of all types of development projects. They have been the focus of much criticism of the World Bank and other international financing agencies. The â€Å"large dams† debate is often highly polarized.Critics of large hydroelectric projects point to a wide range of negative environmental and related social impacts, from the destruction of unique biodiversity to the displacement of vulnerable human populations. Defenders of large dams n ote that they are often the economically least-cost source of electric power available, especially to large urban centers; they are a renewable electricity source; and most other power generation technologies also imply significant adverse environmental impacts. 2.Worldwide, many countries rely upon hydropower for a substantial portion of their electricity. In developing countries, rapid urbanization and continued population growth will ensure increased demand for electric power for decades to come, even with the most successful of demand management and energy efficiency measures. Electricity remains a key ingredient for improving the lives of millions of poor people throughout the developing world. Energy planners in many countries are likely to continue seeing hydroelectric dams as a promising, renewable source of electricity.Major recent international initiatives–including the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002), World Water Forum (Kyoto, 2003), Wo rld Commission on Dams (1997-2002), and the ongoing Dams and Development Project of the United Nations Environment Program–have reaffirmed the commitment of many governments and international agencies (including the World Bank) to hydropower development, but in a manner which fully reflects modern environmental concerns. 3. In this context, it is important to remember that all large hydroelectric dams are not alike.Large hydroelectric projects vary tremendously in the extent of their adverse environmental and related social impacts. (In this paper, we define large hydroelectric dams as those with 10 megawatts or more of installed generating capacity, to distinguish them from small or micro-dams which generate power on a smaller scale. ) For example, the 500–megawatt Pehuenche Hydroelectric Project in Chile flooded only about 400 hectares of land (with minimal damage to forest or wildlife resources) and has had no water quality problems.By contrast, the Brokopondo Dam i n Suriname inundated about 160,000 hectares of biologically valuable tropical rainforest and is known for serious water quality and aquatic weed problems, while providing relatively little electric generating capacity (only 30 megawatts). 4. We conducted a review of more than twenty completed hydroelectric dam projects in Latin America, along with several well-known projects from other regions. Our study found that some large dams are relatively benign, while others have caused substantial environmental and related social damage.This paper provides a methodology for easily comparing proposed hydroelectric project sites in terms of their expected adverse environmental impacts, relative to their power generation benefits. The technical criteria and quantitative indicators in this paper should be viewed as complementary to 1 2 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 16 the broader and often more process-oriented advice of other recent reports on dams, including the 2000 Dams and Development report of the World Commission on Dams.This paper’s recommendations are fully compatible with the World Bank’s Water Resources Sector Strategy, although this paper provides more technical detail regarding specific environmental impacts, mitigation options, and site selection criteria. Adverse Environmental Impacts of Hydropower Development 5. The range of adverse environmental and related social impacts that can result from hydroelectric dams is remarkably diverse. While some impacts occur only during construction, the most important impacts usually are due to the long-term existence and operation of the dam and reservoir.Other significant impacts can result from complementary civil works such as access roads, power transmission lines, and quarries and borrow pits. Table 1 summarizes the adverse environmental and social impacts associated with dams and reservoirs, along with the typical kinds of mitigation measures often proposed (and, less often, effective ly implemented). 6. Our analysis indicates that with properly implemented mitigation measures, many of the negative environmental and related social impacts of hydroelectric projects can be reduced to very acceptable levels.As outlined in Table 1, mitigation measures can effectively prevent, minimize, or compensate for most adverse impacts, but only if they are properly implemented. In our review of Latin American hydroprojects, we found wide variation in the extent to which environmental mitigation measures were planned, budgeted, and actually implemented. 7. Moreover, for some types of negative impacts, at some project sites, the available mitigation measures—even when properly implemented—are inherently unsatisfactory.Examples of adverse environmental impacts which occur at some hydroelectric projects and cannot be fully mitigated include (i) irreversible biodiversity loss, if critical natural habitats not occurring elsewhere are submerged (or left dry) by the dam; (ii) fish passage facilities frequently cannot restore the pre-dam ecological balance of a river, in terms of species composition or fish migrations; and (iii) some cultural property (including sacred sites) cannot be adequately salvaged prior to reservoir inundation. 8.Thus, because mitigation measures are often not fully implemented, and are sometimes inherently inadequate, the single most important environmental mitigation measure for a new hydroelectric project is good site selection, to ensure that the proposed dam is will be largely benign in the first place. In the following summary of typical adverse environmental impacts and corresponding mitigation options, it is important to keep in mind that all these types of impacts can be either avoided or minimized through good project site selection. 3 4Note: All of these impacts can be avoided or minimized by good dam site selection, the single most important environmental measure. Environmental Impacts Mitigation Options Impacts o f the Dam and Reservoir Flooding of Natural Habitats Some reservoirs permanently flood extensive natural habitats, with local and even global extinctions of animal and plant species. Very large hydroelectric reservoirs in the tropics are especially likely to cause species extinctions (although such losses are only infrequently documented due to the lack of scientific data).Particularly hard-hit are riverine forests and other riparian ecosystems, which naturally occur only along rivers and streams. From a biodiversity conservation standpoint, the terrestrial natural habitats lost to flooding are usually much more valuable than the aquatic habitats created by the reservoir. One occasional exception to this rule is that shallow reservoirs in dry zones can provide a permanent oasis, sometimes important for migratory waterfowl and other terrestrial and aquatic fauna.To offset the loss of natural habitats to reservoir flooding or other project components (such as borrow pits), one or more compensatory protected areas can be established and managed under the project. If an existing area is protected â€Å"on paper† only, a useful project option is to strengthen its onthe-ground protection and management. The area protected under the project should ideally be of comparable or greater size and ecological quality to the natural area lost to the project.Under the World Bank’s Natural Habitats Policy, hydroelectric and other projects should not be sited where they would cause the significant conversion or degradation of critical natural habitats that do not occur elsewhere (and, hence, cannot be adequately compensated). Loss of Terrestrial Wildlife The loss of terrestrial wildlife to drowning during reservoir filling is an inherent consequence of the flooding of terrestrial natural habitats, although often treated as a separate impact. Although they may be useful for public relations purposes, wildlife rescue efforts rarely succeed in restoring wild populati ons.Instead of drowning, the captured and relocated animals typically starve, are killed by competitors or predators, or fail to reproduce successfully, due to the limited carrying capacity of their new habitats. Wildlife rescue is most likely to be justified on conservation grounds if (a) the species rescued are globally threatened with extinction and (b) the relocation habitat is ecologically suitable and effectively protected. However, the money spent on rescue would usually do much more for wildlife conservation if it were invested in compensatory protected areas.The most effective way to minimize wildlife mortality in hydroelectric projects is to choose dam sites which minimize the wildlife habitat flooded. LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No 16 Table 1. Hydroelectric Projects: Adverse Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Options Environmental Impacts Mitigation Options Involuntary Displacement Involuntary displacement of people is often the main adverse social impact of hydroelectric projects. It can also have important environmental implications, such as with the conversion of natural habitats to accommodate resettled rural populations.For physical displacement, the main mitigation measure is the resettlement of displaced populations, including new housing, replacement lands, and other material assistance, as needed. Success usually requires consultation and participatory decisionmaking by both the resettled and host populations (mandatory for World Bank–supported resettlement). Effective resettlement of vulnerable ethnic minorities is particularly challenging because some of these people are highly vulnerable to adverse social changes.Accordingly, the World Bank’s Involuntary Resettlement and Indigenous Peoples policies afford special consideration to these populations, specifying that, among other requirements, all viable alternative project designs should be explored before considering physical displacement for these groups. Fo r people who are not physically displaced but suffer an economic loss of livelihoods (based on fisheries, agricultural or grazing lands, river-edge clay for brick and tile production, or other resources), mitigation measures should involve the provision of replacement resources, new job training, or other income restoration assistance, as needed.Deterioration of Water Quality The damming of rivers can cause serious water quality deterioration, due to the reduced oxygenation and dilution of pollutants by relatively stagnant reservoirs (compared to fast-flowing rivers), flooding of biomass (especially forests) and resulting underwater decay, and/or reservoir stratification (where deeper lake waters lack oxygen).Water pollution control measures (such as sewage treatment plants or enforcement of industrial regulations) may be needed to improve reservoir water quality. Where poor water quality would result from the decay of flooded biomass, selective forest clearing within the impoundmen t area should be completed before reservoir filling. Downriver Hydrological Changes These adverse impacts can be minimized through careful management of water releases.Objectives to consider in optimizing water releases from the turbines and spillways include adequate downriver water supply for riparian ecosystems, reservoir and downriver fish survival, reservoir and downriver water quality, aquatic weed and disease vector control, irrigation and other human uses of water, downriver flood protection, recreation (such as whitewater boating), and, of course, power generation. From an ecological standpoint, the ideal water release pattern would usually closely mimic the natural flooding regime (although this may not be feasible for densely settled floodplains where flood protection is a high priority).Dams that generate baseload electricity are typically more capable of replicating near-natural downriver flows than those that produce peaking power (where daily water releases may fluctu ate sharply, often to the detriment of aquatic organisms that are adapted to less frequent flow changes). Environmental management plans for hydroelectric projects should specify environmental water releases, including for dams owned or operated by the private sector. Good Dams and Bad Dams 5Major downriver hydrological changes can destroy riparian ecosystems dependent on periodic natural flooding, exacerbate water pollution during lowflow periods, and increase saltwater intrusion near river mouths. Reduced sediment and nutrient loads downriver of dams can increase river-edge and coastal erosion and damage the biological and economic productivity of rivers and estuaries. Induced desiccation of rivers below dams (when the water is diverted to another portion of the river, or to a different river) kills fish and other fauna and flora dependent on the river; it can also damage agriculture and human water supplies.Mitigation Options Water-Related Diseases Some infectious diseases can sp read around hydroelectric reservoirs, particularly in warm climates and densely populated areas. Some diseases (such as malaria and schistosomiasis) are borne by water-dependent disease vectors (mosquitoes and aquatic snails); others (such as dysentery, cholera, and hepatitis A) are spread by contaminated water, which frequently becomes worse in stagnant reservoirs than it was in fast-flowing rivers.Corresponding public health measures should include preventive measures (such as awareness campaigns and window screens), monitoring of vectors and disease outbreaks, vector control, and clinical treatment of disease cases, as needed. Control of floating aquatic weeds (see below) near populated areas can reduce mosquito-borne disease risks. Fish and Other Aquatic Life Hydroelectric projects often have major effects on fish and other aquatic life. Reservoirs positively affect certain fish species (and fisheries) by ncreasing the area of available aquatic habitat. However, the net impacts are often negative because (a) the dam blocks upriver fish migrations, while downriver passage through turbines or over spillways is often unsuccessful; (b) many riveradapted fish and other aquatic species cannot survive in artificial lakes; (c) changes in downriver flow patterns adversely affect many species, and (d) water quality deterioration in or below reservoirs (usually low oxygen levels; sometimes gas super-saturation) kills fish and damages aquatic habitats.Freshwater molluscs, crustaceans, and other benthic organisms are even more sensitive to these changes than most fish species, due to their limited mobility. Management of water releases may be needed for the survival of certain fish species, in and below the reservoir. Fish passage facilities (fish ladders, elevators, or trap-and-truck operations) are intended to help migratory fish move upriver past a dam; they are usually of limited effectiveness for various reasons (including the difficulty of ensuring safe downriver passage for many adults and fry).Fish hatcheries can be useful for maintaining populations of native species which can survive but not successfully reproduce within the reservoir. They are also often used for stocking the reservoir with economically desired species, although introducing non-native fish is often devastating to native species and not ecologically desirable. Fishing regulation is often essential to maintain viable populations of commercially valuable species, especially in the waters immediately below a dam where migratory fish species concentrate in high numbers and are unnaturally easy to catch.Floating Aquatic Vegetation Floating aquatic vegetation can rapidly proliferate in eutrophic reservoirs, causing problems such as (a) degraded habitat for most species of fish and other aquatic life, (b) improved breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other nuisance species and disease vectors, (c) impeded navigation and swimming, (d) clogging of electro-mechanical equipment at dams, and (e) increased water loss from some reservoirs. Pollution control and pre-impoundment selective forest clearing will make reservoirs less conducive to aquatic weed growth.Physical removal or containment of floating aquatic weeds is effective but imposes a high and recurrent expense for large reservoirs. Where compatible with other objectives (power generation, fish survival, etc. ), occasional drawdown of reservoir water levels may be used to kill aquatic weeds. Chemical poisoning of weeds or related insect pests requires much environmental caution and is usually best avoided. LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No 16 Environmental Impacts (table continues on following page) 6 Table 1.Hydroelectric Projects: Adverse Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Options (continued) Environmental Impacts Mitigation Options Loss of Cultural Property Cultural property, including archaeological, historical, paleontological, and religious sites and objects, can be inundated by reser voirs or destroyed by associated quarries, borrow pits, roads, or other works. Structures and objects of cultural interest should undergo salvage wherever feasible through scientific inventory, careful physical relocation, and documentation and storage in museums or other appropriate facilities.However, it is often not possible to replace the loss of, or damage to, unique or sacred sites which may have great religious or ceremonial significance to indigenous or other local people. Reservoir Sedimentation Over time, live storage and power generation are reduced by reservoir sedimentation, such that much of some projects’ hydroelectric energy might not be renewable over the long term. If effectively implemented, watershed management can minimize sedimentation and extend a reservoir’s useful physical life, through the control of road construction, mining, agriculture, and other land use in the upper catchment area.Protected areas are sometimes established in upper catchme nts to reduce sediment flows into reservoirs, as with the Fortuna Dam in Panama and the proposed Rio Amoya (Colombia) and Nam Theun II (Laos) projects. Aside from watershed management, other sediment management techniques for hydroelectric reservoirs may at times be physically and economically feasible; they include, among others, upstream check structures, protecting dam outlets, reservoir flushing, mechanical removal, and increasing the dam’s height.Greenhouse Gases Greenhouse gas releases from reservoirs can be reduced by a thorough salvage of commercial timber and fuelwood, although frequently this does not happen because of (a) high extraction and transportation costs, (b) marketing constraints, or (c) political and economic pressures not to delay reservoir filling. The surest way to minimize greenhouse gas releases from reservoirs is to choose dam sites that minimize the flooding of land in general, and forests in particular. table continues on following page) Good Dams and Bad Dams 7 Greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane) are released into the atmosphere from reservoirs that flood forests and other biomass, either slowly (as flooded organic matter decomposes) or rapidly (if the forest is cut and burned before reservoir filling). Greenhouse gases are widely considered to be the main cause of human-induced global climate change. Many hydroelectric reservoirs flood relatively little forest or other biomass.Moreover, most hydroprojects generate sufficient electricity to more than offset the greenhouse gases which would otherwise have been produced by burning fossil fuels (natural gas, fuel oil, or coal) in power plants. However, some projects which flood extensive forest areas, such as the Balbina Dam in Amazonian Brazil, appear to emit greenhouse gases in greater amounts than would be produced by burning natural gas for many years of comparable electricity generation. Mitigation Options Impacts of Complementary Civil Works Access RoadsNew acc ess roads to hydroelectric dams can induce major land use changes— particularly deforestation—with resulting loss of biodiversity, accelerated erosion, and other environmental problems. In some projects (such as Arun II in Nepal), the environmental impacts of access roads can greatly exceed those of the reservoir. The siting of any new access roads should be in the environmentally and socially least damaging corridors. Forests and other environmentally sensitive areas along the chosen road corridor should receive legal and on-the-ground protection.Road engineering should ensure proper drainage, to protect waterways and minimize erosion. Environmental rules for contractors (including penalties for noncompliance) should cover construction camp siting, gravel extraction, waste disposal, avoiding water pollution, worker behavior (such as no hunting), and other construction practices. See Ledec and Posas (2003) for details. Power Transmission Lines Power transmission line r ights-of-way often reduce and fragment forests; indirectly, they occasionally facilitate further deforestation by improving physical access.Large birds are sometimes killed in collisions with power lines, or by electrocution. Power lines can also be aesthetically objectionable. Power lines should be sited to minimize these concerns and built using good environmental practices (as with roads). In areas with concentrations of vulnerable bird species, the top (grounding) wire should be made more visible with plastic devices. Electrocution (mainly of large birds of prey) should be avoided through bird-friendly tower design and proper spacing of conducting wires.Quarries and Borrow Pits Quarries and borrow pits are used to provide material for construction of the dam and complementary works. They can considerably increase the area of natural habitats or agricultural lands that are lost to a hydroelectric project. To the greatest extent feasible, quarries and borrow pits should be sited w ithin the future inundation zone. Where this is not feasible, the pits should be rehabilitated after use, ideally for conservation purposes such as wetland habitats. Impacts of Induced DevelopmentAssociated Development Projects Hydroelectric dams often make possible new development projects with major environmental impacts, including irrigation, urban expansion, and industrial facilities (due to new water supplies). New development projects should be planned to minimize adverse environmental and social impacts. Environmental impact assessment studies should be carried out in the early stages of project planning; the resulting environmental mitigation plans should be fully implemented. Additional DamsThe construction of the first dam on a river can make the subsequent construction of additional dams more economical, because flow regulation by the upriver dam can enhance power generation at the downriver dam(s). The environmental impact assessment study for the first dam on any river should include a cumulative environmental assessment of the likely impacts of proposed additional dams on the same river system. Implementation of mitigation measures for cumulative (rather than dam-specific) impacts should be completed or well underway prior to construction of the second dam on the river. LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No 16Environmental Impacts 8 Table 1. Hydroelectric Projects: Adverse Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Options (continued) Key Indicators of Likely Environmental Impacts 9. Before a dam site is chosen (with a project-specific environmental impact assessment), sector-level environmental analysis can rank potential sites according to their degree of environmental desirability. A sectoral environmental assessment (SEA) should be carried out prior to making major power sector planning decisions, especially in the comparison of hydroelectric and other power generation (and demand management) alternatives.However, even without a detailed SEA , it is possible to carry out a simple environmental and ranking of different hydropower sites using basic, often readily available technical data. There exist various quantitative, easily calculated indicators that can be used to estimate the extent of adverse environmental impacts for any proposed hydroelectric project. 10. This paper presents 13 quantitative, easily calculated indicators that we consider especially useful for hydroproject site selection from an environmental standpoint. These indicators have high predictive value for likely adverse environmental (and related social) impacts.The first nine indicators (A–I) use information that is normally easy to obtain from basic dam planning data, even without a separate environmental study. The other four indicators (J–M) are also very important in the environmental comparison of alternative dam sites, but involve data that may require further environmental (or resettlement) study to obtain. Indicator A (hectares of land inundated) is perhaps the single most useful one in predicting the degree of environmental damage, because this indicator is positively correlated with many of the others.From a social standpoint, the number of people requiring resettlement (Indicator J) is an especially important. A. Reservoir Surface Area 11. The area flooded by the reservoir is a strong proxy variable for many environmental and social impacts (Goodland, 1997). A large reservoir area implies the loss of much natural habitat and wildlife and/or the displacement of many people. Very large reservoirs are typically in the lowlands (often with tropical disease and aquatic weed problems) and usually impound larger rivers (with more fish and other aquatic species at risk).A very useful measure of environmental costs relative to economic benefits is the ratio of inundated hectares per megawatt (ha/MW) of electricity; it varies by four orders of magnitude for large power projects (see Table 2). The global average f or all large hydroelectric dams constructed to date (not just those in Table 2) is about 60 ha/MW (J. Goldemberg, pers. comm. ); it would be environmentally highly desirable for this average to be much reduced in future hydroprojects. B. Water Retention Time in Reservoir 12.Mean water retention time during normal operation (the shorter, the better) is very useful in estimating the extent to which reservoirs will have long-term water quality problems. This figure (number of days) is calculated as a function of reservoir volume (cubic meters) and mean river flow (cubic liters per second). 9 10 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 16 C. Biomass Flooded 13. Biomass flooded is calculated in tons per hectare based on the percent cover of different vegetation types in the reservoir area.For good reservoir water quality, dams should minimize flooding of forests (which have high biomass content). Flooding native forests also threatens biodiversity and releases greenhouse gases. D. L ength of River Impounded 14. To conserve aquatic and riparian biodiversity (including riverine forests), dam sites should minimize the length (kilometers) of river (main stem plus tributaries) impounded by the reservoir (measured during high flow periods). E. Length of River Left Dry 15. This measures the kilometers of river left dry (with less than 50 percent of dry season mean flow) below the dam, due to water diversion.The length of dried-up river bed (before the next important downstream tributary) should be minimized, due to the loss of fish and other aquatic life, damage to riparian ecosystems, and disruption of human water supplies, agriculture, and/or fishing. F. Number of Downriver Tributaries 16. The more (major, undammed) tributaries downriver of the dam site, the better, in terms of maintaining accessible habitat for migratory fish, the natural flooding regime for riverine ecosystems, and nutrient or sediment inputs needed for the high biological productivity of estuarie s. G. Likelihood of Reservoir Stratification 7. Stratification in a reservoir occurs when the lake’s upper zone (epilimnion) is thermally divided from the deeper zone (hypolimnion); the latter becomes stagnant and lacking in dissolved oxygen (anaerobic), thereby unsuitable for most aquatic life. A rapid estimate of stratification tendencies in a reservoir can be obtained with the Densimetric Froude Number (F). F can be calculated as: F = 320(L/D)(Q/V), where L = length of the reservoir (meters), D = mean reservoir depth (meters) (for which dam height can be a proxy), Q = mean water inflow (cubic meters per second), and V = eservoir volume (cubic meters). If F is less than 1, some stratification is expected, the severity of which increases with a smaller F. When F is greater than 1, stratification is not likely. H. Useful Reservoir Life 18. Useful reservoir life is the expected number of years before a reservoir’s dead storage is completely filled, so that further sedim entation reduces the live storage and curtails power generation. Dead storage comprises all reservoir water beneath the level of the intakes for the dam’s turbines; all of the water at or above this intake level is part of the live storage.Useful reservoir life is a function of dead storage and river-borne sediment loads. Useful reservoir life is a good indicator of the relative sustainability of electric power generation; it varies from less than ten years before dead storage is filled (such as the Paute Dam in Ecuador) to potentially thousands of years. In general, reservoirs with the longest useful life are relatively deep and situated on rivers with low sediment loads. Maintaining low sediment loads over time typically requires good watershed management. Good Dams and Bad Dams 11 I. Access Roads through Forests 19.Where the risks of induced deforestation are high, project siting should minimize the kilometers of required new or upgraded access roads passing through or nea r natural forests. J. Persons Requiring Resettlement 20. The number of people physically displaced by hydroelectric projects ranges from zero (e. g. Pehuenche, Chile) to over 50,000 in Latin America (e. g. Yacyreta, Argentina-Paraguay) and well over 1 million in Asia (Three Gorges, China). Dam siting should generally seek to minimize the number of individuals or households requiring resettlement from lands affected by the reservoir and complementary civil works.A useful measure for relating resettlement costs to hydropower benefits is the ratio of people displaced per megawatt (Table 2). Because of their usually greater vulnerability to social disruption, it is especially important to minimize the number of indigenous people with traditional land-based models of production who would require resettlement. K. Critical Natural Habitats Affected 21. It is important to know the number of sites and hectares of critical natural habitats that would be lost to inundation, borrow pits, or oth er project components.Critical natural habitats include existing and officially proposed protected areas, as well as unprotected areas of known high importance for biodiversity conservation. To comply with the World Bank’s Natural Habitats Policy, hydroelectric projects should not cause any significant loss or degradation of critical natural habitats. On the other hand, some hydroelectric projects imply very important conservation opportunities by providing a strong justification (sediment reduction) and financial resources needed for protecting natural habitats in upper catchment areas.L. Fish Species Diversity and Endemism 22. Fish species diversity is the number of species known from the project area, including the dam and reservoir site, as well as the downstream zone of project influence. Fish species endemism is the number of native species known only from the project area, or the river system where the project is located, and nowhere else on Earth. Dams are environment ally less objectionable if they affect rivers with a naturally low diversity and endemism of native fish species.In general, large, lowland rivers in warm (tropical or subtropical) climates have a high diversity of native fish and other aquatic organisms, while small rivers in cold (tropical highland or temperate) climates have relatively low diversity. Large, lowland rivers are also more likely to have significant seasonal fish migrations, which are effectively blocked by most dams. However, highland rivers and streams often have relatively high endemism in their fish fauna, especially if they are isolated from other rivers by waterfalls or other natural barriers.River segments with threatened fish species found nowhere else should be classified as critical natural habitats and, ideally, would receive permanent protection from dams or other potentially damaging civil works. However, dams and reservoirs in upper tributary rivers and streams need not threaten the survival of any ende mic fish (or mollusks, or other aquatic life) if they affect only an insignificant portion of the river area used by these species (see Indicators D and E); they should also be sited so as not to block important fish migrations. M. Cultural Property Affected 23.An indication of the cultural significance of the area to be inundated (or otherwise affected by the project) is the number (by type) of cultural (archaeological, historical, paleontological, or religious) objects or sites. It is important to note whether each type of cultural property at the project site is salvageable (totally, partially, or not at all). 12 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 16 Table 2. Land Area Flooded and People Displaced in Large Hydropower Projects Project (country) Arun II (Nepal) Pehuenche (Chile) Pangue (Chile) Guavio (Colombia) Tehri (India) Ghazi Barotha (Pakistan)Nam Theun-Hinboun (Laos) Ertan (China) Fortuna (Panama) Chixoy (Guatemala) Grand Coulee (United States) Three Gorges (China) Tarbela (Pakistan) Salvajina (Colombia) Zimapan (Mexico) Itaipu (Brazil/Paraguay) Victoria (Sri Lanka) Kararao/Belo Monte (Brazil) Aguamilpa (Mexico) Betania (Colombia) Urra I (Colombia) Mangla (Pakistan) Bakun (Malaysia) Ataturk (Turkey) El Cajon (Honduras) Ilha Solteira (Brazil) Guri Complex (Venezuela) Salto Grande (Argentina/Uruguay) Nam Theun II (Laos) Arenal (Costa Rica) Yacyreta (Argentina/Paraguay) Tucurui (Brazil) Narmada Sagar (India) Porto Primavera (Brazil)Churchill Falls (Canada) Khao Laem (Thailand) Kedung Ombo (Indonesia) Kainji (Nigeria) Pak Mun (Thailand) Cabora Bassa (Mozambique) Aswan High (Egypt) Nam Ngum (Laos) Sobradinho (Brazil) Kariba (Zambia/Zimbabwe) Balbina (Brazil) Akosombo (Ghana) Bayano (Panama) Kompienga (Burkina Faso) Brokopondo (Suriname) Installed capacity (MW) 402 500 450 1,000 2,400 1,450 210 3,300 300 300 6,494 18,200 3,478 270 280 12,600 210 8,381 960 510 340 1,000 2,400 2,400 300 3,200 10,300 1,890 1,086 157 3,100 3,980 1,000 1,815 5,225 300 2 9 760 34 2,075 2,100 150 1,050 1,260 250 833 30 14 30 Reservoir rea (hectares) 43 400 500 1,530 4,200 2,640 630 10,100 1,050 1,400 33,306 110,000 24,280 2,030 2,300 135,000 2,270 116,000 13,000 7,370 7,400 25,300 70,000 81,700 11,200 125,700 426,000 78,300 45,000 7,000 165,000 243,000 90,820 225,000 665,000 38,800 4,600 126,000 6,000 380,000 400,000 37,000 415,000 510,000 236,000 848,200 35,000 20,000 160,000 People displaced 775 0 50 4,959 100,000 899 0 30,000 446 3,445 10,000 >1,300,000 96,000 3,272 2,800 59,000 45,000 n. a. 1,000 544 6,200 90,000 9,000 55,000 4,000 6,150 1,500 n. a. 5,700 2,500 50,000 30,000 80,500 15,000 0 10,800 29,000 50,000 4,945

Iliad as a war literature Essay

Homer’s epic poem, â€Å"The Iliad,† is probably one of the best stories that tell us about war. In this poem, we see humans fighting with humans, gods fighting with humans, and even gods fighting with gods. Even though it was made some time around the 7th century BC, we can associate with our modern warfare. In Homer’s â€Å"Iliad,† we see how the gods manipulated the people in fighting their own wars, just like how political leaders of different countries manipulate their army to fight another country. We can also see that modern wars, just like the Trojan war in â€Å"the Iliad,† can be caused by small matters which were just blown up to huge proportions by those who manipulate these wars. The book can be seen as Homer’s perspective of war. It is somewhat an anti-war literature because it showed how wars usually end. Both sides lost great lives, including some of their respected heroes. In the Greeks’ side, they lost Achilles’ best friend, Patroclus (23. 1-7). On the Trojans’ side, they lost their prince, Hector (24. 21-23). Achilles eventually died some time after, when he was shot by Paris, Hector’s brother in the heel of his foot which was his weakness. It showed that no one really reigns victorious, even after winning the war. This is because both sides suffer great losses, not only in properties, but also the lives of those who are involved in the war, both armies and civilians. Some attitudes towards war that Homer depicted in Iliad were the possible motives of engaging in wars. The most evident motive in the Trojan War was to retrieve the wife of Menelaus, the brother of the Greek King Agamemnon. They decided to launch an all out war, deploying a fleet of more than a thousand ships in order to retrieve Helen (of Troy) who was abducted by a Trojan prince, Paris (3. 29-31). Another attitude towards war shown in this epic poem was the intervention by higher powers. With the intervention of the Olympian gods and goddesses, the war to regain Helen of Troy was blown up to greater proportions. It became a personal war for these gods and goddesses, especially when they chose to take sides between the Trojans and the Greeks. The gods and goddesses who took the side of the Greeks include Hera, Athena, Poseidon, and Hermes (4. 37-49). On the other hand, the gods who took the side of the Trojans include Aphrodite, Apollo, Artemis, and Leto (1. 10-15). They backed up the soldiers whenever they fight and are usually the ones who decide on how the fight would end. Only Zeus remained in the middle, wherein he forbade the intervention of these gods in the war. Homer was able to depict a war which is similar to our modern day warfare. His depiction of gods was like the political leaders of various nations who would encourage their people to engage in wars against other nations. These are the leaders who are not physically in battle, but are the ones who actually dictate how the wars would go. Also, the wars that they often start would usually mean great losses for both warring sides. The reasons for these wars were very much the same like that of Homer’s â€Å"the Iliad. † These are usually small things which could be solved by negotiations, but the pride of the leaders is usually the ones that fuel the war. Leaders like Menelaus and Agamemnon are the same as the political leaders that we have today, who prefers violent negotiations rather than peaceful means to solve conflicts. This usually leaves the country with great problems, like loses of lives and property and a bad economy. Works Cited: Homer. â€Å"The Iliad†. 2006. Spark Notes. October 15 2007. . Sienkewicz, Tom. â€Å"The Gods in the Iliad†. 2002. October 15 2007. .

Free Essays on Role Of Anglo Saxon Women

such as seamster, spinster and Webster, nowadays a surname - all connected with cloth-making. From wills we know that a wealthy Anglo-Saxon household contained a variety of soft furnishings: bed-clothes, table-linen, seat-covers, wall-hangings, etc., so women would have had plenty of work in this field. In the Anglo-Saxon household, food was prepared by male slaves alone or men and women equally, but preparing and serving drink was women's job. This is confirmed by surnames such as Brewster, Malster and Tapster, and by heroic poetry, where the lady is always the one to serve the drinks. Female cup-bearers (birele) are also mentioned in Æthelbert's laws: "14. If a man lie with an eorl's birele, let him make bot with twelve shillings. ... 16. If a man lie with a ceorl's bir... Free Essays on Role Of Anglo Saxon Women Free Essays on Role Of Anglo Saxon Women The role of women. Anglo-Saxon society was decidedly patriarchal, but women were in some ways better off than they would be in later times. A woman could own property in her own right. She could and did rule a kingdom if her husband died. She could not be married without her consent and any personal goods, including lands, that she brought into a marriage remained her own property. If she were injured or abused in her marriage her relatives were expected to look after her interests.What did an Anglo-Saxon woman do all day? This would naturally depend greatly on her social class as well as regional and period differences. The word wif 'wife, woman' might be connected with weaving, which implies that cloth-making was associated with women. In wills, the male line was called wnedhealf 'weapon half' or sperehealf 'spear half' and the female line was wifhealf 'wife half' or spinelhealf 'spindle half'. It would then seem that men were traditionally warriors or hunters, while women were clo th-makers and embroiderers.This view is also supported by other literature from that time and by grave findings. Furthermore, the feminine occupational suffix -stere was used to form words such as seamster, spinster and Webster, nowadays a surname - all connected with cloth-making. From wills we know that a wealthy Anglo-Saxon household contained a variety of soft furnishings: bed-clothes, table-linen, seat-covers, wall-hangings, etc., so women would have had plenty of work in this field. In the Anglo-Saxon household, food was prepared by male slaves alone or men and women equally, but preparing and serving drink was women's job. This is confirmed by surnames such as Brewster, Malster and Tapster, and by heroic poetry, where the lady is always the one to serve the drinks. Female cup-bearers (birele) are also mentioned in Æthelbert's laws: "14. If a man lie with an eorl's birele, let him make bot with twelve shillings. ... 16. If a man lie with a ceorl's bir...

The History of Satellites - Sputnik I

The History of Satellites - Sputnik I History was made on October 4, 1957, when the Soviet Union successfully launched  Sputnik I. The worlds first artificial satellite was about the size of a basketball and weighed only 183 pounds. It took about 98 minutes for Sputnik I to orbit the Earth on its elliptical path. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments and marked the beginning of the space race between the U.S.and the U.S.S.R. The International Geophysical Year In 1952, the International Council of Scientific Unions decided to establish the International Geophysical Year. It wasnt actually a year but rather more like 18 months, set from July 1, ​1957, to December 31, 1958. Scientists knew that cycles of solar activity would be at a high point at this time. The Council adopted a resolution in October 1954 calling for artificial satellites to be launched during the IGY to map the earths surface. The U.S. Contribution   The White House announced plans to launch an Earth-orbiting satellite for the IGY in July 1955. The government solicited proposals from various research agencies to undertake development of this satellite. NSC 5520, the  Draft Statement of Policy on U.S. Scientific Satellite Program, recommended both the creation of a scientific satellite program as well as the development of satellites for reconnaissance purposes. The National Security Council approved the IGY satellite on May 26, 1955, based on NSC 5520. This event  was announced to the public on July 28 during an oral briefing at the White House. The  governments statement emphasized that the satellite program was intended to be the U.S. contribution to the IGY and that the scientific data was to benefit scientists of all nations. The Naval Research Laboratorys Vanguard proposal for a satellite was chosen in September 1955 to represent the U.S. during the IGY.   Then Came Sputnik I   The Sputnik launch changed everything. As a technical achievement, it caught the worlds attention and the American public off guard. Its size was more impressive than Vanguards intended 3.5-pound payload. The public reacted with fear that the Soviets ability to launch such a satellite would translate to the ability to launch ballistic missiles that could carry nuclear weapons from Europe to the U.S. Then the Soviets struck again: Sputnik II was launched on November 3, carrying a much heavier payload and a dog named Laika. The U.S. Response The U.S. Defense Department responded to the political and public  furor over the Sputnik satellites by approving funding for another U.S. satellite project. As a simultaneous alternative to Vanguard, Wernher von Braun and his Army Redstone Arsenal team began work on a satellite that would become known as Explorer. The tide of the space race changed on January 31,  1958, when the U.S. successfully launched Satellite 1958 Alpha, familiarly known as Explorer I. This satellite carried a small scientific payload that eventually discovered magnetic radiation belts around the Earth. These belts were named after principal investigator James Van Allen. The Explorer program continued as a successful ongoing series of lightweight, scientifically-useful spacecraft.   The Creation of NASA The Sputnik launch also led to the creation of NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Congress passed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, commonly called the Space Act,† in July 1958,  and the Space Act created NASA effective October 1, 1958. It joined NACA, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, with other government agencies. NASA went on to do  pioneering work in space applications, such as communications satellites, in the 1960s. The Echo, Telstar, Relay, and Syncom satellites were built by NASA or by the private sector based on significant NASA advances. In the 1970s, NASAs Landsat program literally changed the way we look at our planet. The first three Landsat satellites were launched in 1972, 1975, and 1978. They transmitted complex data streams back to earth that could be converted into colored pictures. Landsat data has been used in a variety of practical commercial applications since then, including crop management and fault line detection. It tracks many kinds of weather, such as droughts, forest fires, and ice floes. NASA has also been involved in a variety of other earth science efforts as well, such as the Earth Observation System of spacecraft and data processing that has yielded important scientific results in tropical deforestation, global warming, and climate change.

THE INVASION OF LIBYA BY USA IS RIGHT Research Paper

THE INVASION OF LIBYA BY USA IS RIGHT - Research Paper Example 1). According to Blum (2003), â€Å"For over a decade the American public had been told that Libyan leader Muammar el-Qaddafi was behind one terrorist act after another†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (pp. 281). This came to a head in February of 2011 when Muammar Gaddafi decided that he and his sons and the rest of his family would fight until blood ran red in the streets. The unjust slaughter of a significant number of civilians and protesters caused the United States to put pressure on the United Nations in order to pass Resolution 1973, which basically stated that all necessary action could be taken by the Coalition forces—at which the U.S. was the head until a few weeks later—in order to protect civilians who were being unjustly killed at the hands of Qaddafi and his supporters, the Army. Bodies of soldiers who refused to kill innocent protesters and other passersby were found burnt in the streets. People were not allowed to bury their dead because the people attending the funeral wer e being shot at by the Army. Rebel forces still hadn’t taken Tripoli, and there was intense fighting in Benghazi, but especially Misrata. Additionally, the fight for Al-Brega was intense because that held the power supply to the western part of the nation, and indeed much of the energy supply for the entire nation of Libya. The Rebels held Al-Brega for a short while, but then they lost control over the resources of the oil, which was a key linchpin in bringing down Qaddafi. Colonel Gaddafi, however, has many elements that are working in his favor. First, even though his assets were all frozen, there were billions of dollars stashed away in hidden places that were not known to the United Nations. â€Å"Colonel Gaddafi is funding his fightback against rebel forces from a stockpile of ‘tens of billions’ squirreled away in Tripoli banks, U.S. intelligence agents have